Hinduism

"Purusha has a thousand heads, a thousand eyes and thousand feet. On every side enveloping earth, he transcended (it) by a space of ten fingers. Purusha himself is this whole (universe), whatever has been and whatever shall be. He is also the lord of immortality... such is his greatness... And existing things are quarter (or foot) of him and that which is immortal in the sky is three quarters of him... He then became diffused everywhere among things animate and inanimate. From him Viraj was born and from Viraj, Purusha. As soon as he was born, he extended beyond earth, both beyond and before. When the gods offered up Purusha as a sacrifice, the spring was its clarified butter, summer its fuel and autumn the (accompanying) oblation.. From that universal oblation were produced curds and clarified butter. Purusha formed those aerial creatures and the animals, both wild and tame. From it were produced horses and all animals with two rows of teeth, cows, goats and sheep. When they divided Purusha, into how many parts did they distribute him?... The brahmana was his mouth; the Rajanya became his arms; the Vaisya his thighs; the Sudra sprang from his feet. The moon was produced from his soul; the Sun from his eye; Indra and Agni from his mouth and Vayu from his breath. From his navel atmosphere, from his head arose the sky; from his feet came the earth, from his ear the four quarters - so they formed the worlds..."

Rig Veda X90, translated by J. Muir

At the end of the last lecture I introduced a concept from the Rig Veda of the being who makes up the universe: Prajapati or Purusha. We recall that although his cut-up body becomes every part of the universe — every plant, animal and every thing that is — that still he is more than the sum of his parts, and an important part is left over and remains outside the universe. Whether this concept is expressed in this early anthropomorphic form, as Purusha's cut-up body or in more sophisticated language as creation by emanation, it is the same. Be able to define the following terms used for various patterns of belief in God or gods:

• monotheism: belief in one God
• polytheism:  belief in many gods
• pantheism:  all, everything is god; everything added together is god.
• panentheism:  god is the totality of the universe plus more — something more that transcends the universe (associated with the view that creation is by emanation).

In the Rig Veda it seemed that we were dealing with polytheism, and while the ancient view approaches pantheism, perhaps panentheism (a coined word) best fits the Vedic concept that everything is a part of God but even if all the parts were added up it would equal only a part of Purusha. (The term monotheism has been historically used as designating one supreme god and a separately created universe. That God and universe are two has been the dominant orthodox view in both Christianity and Judaism.)

In the Rig Vedic period we have the view that the divine reality is one and many at the same time. This sort of unity is one as an organism, but many in its parts.

In the Rig Vedic view there is one supreme divine reality — Purusha. Oneness resides in the oneness of Purusha. Even Devas and Ashuras, beings more powerful and longer-lived than humans, are subordinate parts of the oneness of Purusha and are finite. Purusha's being cut up is spoken of as a willing sacrifice by him in order to have a universe and his reality transcends his cut-upness. The contrast between this idea of the universe being part of god and the other (monotheistic view) that God calls out of nothingness something separate into existence is one of basic differences between western religions (Christianity, Judaism, Islam) and Hinduism.

In the Rig Veda are the germs of much later developed Hindu thought. The orthodox Hindu would say that all later religious thought of Vedic Dharma is given, at least in seed form, in the Four Vedas. For purposes of this class you should get the overall pattern of myth, see the polytheism and that the Devas and Ashuras come from primordial unity and see the ritual of sacrifice as the heart of worship.

At least one hymn in the Rig Veda gives less of a mythical and more of a metaphysical understanding of creation. One of the hymns most often quoted:

A Hymn of Creation

The non-existent was not; the existent was not at that time. The atmosphere was not nor the heavens which are beyond. What was concealed? Where? In whose protection? Was it water? An unfathomable abyss?

There was neither death nor immortality then. There was not distinction of day or night. That alone breathed windless by its own power. Other than that there was not anything else.

Darkness was hidden by darkness in the beginning. All this was an indistinguishable sea. That which becomes, that which was enveloped by the void, that alone was born through the power of heat.

Upon that desire arose in the beginning. This was the first discharge of thought. Sages discovered this link of the existent to the nonexistent, having searched in the heart with wisdom.

Their line [of vision] was extended across; what was below, what was above? There were impregnators, there were powers: inherent power below, impulses above.

Who knows truly? Who here will declare whence it arose, whence this creation? The gods are subsequent to the creation of this. Who, then, knows whence it has come into being?

Whence this creation has come into being; whether it was made or not; he in the highest heaven is its surveyor. Surely he knows, or perhaps he knows not.

(Rig Veda 10,129)

These diverse ways of looking at god are all in the Rig Veda, and we’ve just talked about the more metaphysical aspect. There is one line in the Rig Veda that expresses one of the fundamental principles of Hinduism:

Truth or Being is One. Sages call it by many names or Reality.

The divine shows itself in many diverse ways — in later thought in as many ways as there are creatures to see.  And in a parable from ancient India applied in both Hindu and Buddhist teaching: The elephant is the whole of reality and is explored by six blind men. The first says it is like the trunk of a tree. The second denies this and says it is like a snake or a rope. The third says "No, it is like the wall on the side of a house." The fourth thinks them all wrong and says it is like a piece of sail or a canvas. And in turn, the fifth and sixth deny what the others have discovered and proclaim their own versions as truth. There is one reality. The blind men do not err in what they reported positively. Where they went astray is where they denied the other's views. Human beings are finite, and so long as we faithfully perceive from a given view we are correct when we are positive.

Buddhism

Nirvana

Nirvana is the most common of several names that the Buddha gave to the goal of his religion. Some of the others being the Excellent (Pantam), Security (Khemam), Purity (Suddhi), the Island (Dipam) Freedom (Mutti) and the Culmination (Paryanam). The word Nirvana comes from the root meaning 'to blow out' and refers to the extinguishing of the fires of greed, hatred and delusion. When these emotional and psychological defilements are destroyed by wisdom, the mind becomes free, radiant and joyful and at death one is no longer subject to rebirth. Buddhist philosophers have long debated about whether Nirvana is absolute cessation or an ineffable transcendental state. During the Buddha's lifetime he was sometimes accused of being a nihilist, a charge he strongly denied, adding

"One thing and only one thing do I teach, suffering and the cessation of suffering," said the Buddha.  It would seem, therefore, that Nirvana is neither complete nothingness or existence at least in terms of the way that these words are usually used. One thing is certain though, it is not a heaven state and it is not the absorption of the individual soul into an Absolute, an idea that is more indicative of Hinduism. However, whichever way it is understood, the Buddha's saying that "Nirvana is the ultimate happiness" (nibbanam paramam sukham) makes it clear that it is a worthwhile goal.

Nirvana (Nibbana)

Nibbana names the transcendent and singularly ineffable freedom that stands as the final goal of all the Buddha's teachings.

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Defined in terms of what it is...

"This is peace, this is exquisite -- the resolution of all fabrications, the relinquishment of all acquisitions, the ending of craving; dispassion; cessation; Nibbana."

-- AN III.32

There's no fire like passion,
no loss like anger,
no pain like the aggregates,
no ease other than peace.

Hunger: the foremost illness.
Fabrications: the foremost pain.
For one knowing this truth
as it actually is,
Unbinding
is the foremost ease.

Freedom from illness: the foremost good fortune.
Contentment: the foremost wealth.
Trust: the foremost kinship.
Unbinding: the foremost ease.

-- Dhp 202-205

The enlightened, constantly
absorbed in jhana,
persevering,
firm in their effort:
they touch Unbinding,
the unexcelled safety
from bondage.

-- Dhp 23

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...and in terms of what it is not

"There is that sphere where there is neither earth, nor water, nor fire, nor wind; neither sphere of the infinitude of space, nor sphere of the infinitude of consciousness, nor sphere of nothingness, nor sphere of neither perception nor non-perception; neither this world, nor the next world, nor sun, nor moon. And there, I say, there is neither coming, nor going, nor stasis; neither passing away nor arising: without stance, without foundation, without support [mental object]. This, just this, is the end of stress."

-- Ud VIII.1

"There is, monks, an unborn -- unbecome -- unmade -- unfabricated. If there were not that unborn -- unbecome -- unmade -- unfabricated, there would not be the case that emancipation from the born -- become -- made -- fabricated would be discerned. But precisely because there is an unborn -- unbecome -- unmade -- unfabricated, emancipation from the born -- become -- made -- fabricated is discerned."

-- Ud VIII.3

Where water, earth, fire, & wind have no footing:
There the stars do not shine,
the sun is not visible,
the moon does not appear,
darkness is not found.
And when a sage,
a brahmin through sagacity,
has known [this] for himself,
then from form & formless,
from bliss & pain,
he is freed.

-- Ud I.10

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One's first breakthrough to Nibbana puts an end to so much suffering

Then the Blessed One, picking up a little bit of dust with the tip of his fingernail, said to the monks, "What do you think, monks? Which is greater: the little bit of dust I have picked up with the tip of my fingernail, or the great earth?"

"The great earth is far greater, lord. The little bit of dust the Blessed One has picked up with the tip of his fingernail is next to nothing. It's not a hundredth, a thousandth, a one hundred-thousandth -- this little bit of dust the Blessed One has picked up with the tip of his fingernail -- when compared with the great earth."

"In the same way, monks, for a noble disciple who is consummate in view, an individual who has broken through [to stream-entry], the suffering & stress that is totally ended & extinguished is far greater. That which remains in the state of having at most seven remaining lifetimes is next to nothing: it's not a hundredth, a thousandth, a one hundred-thousandth, when compared with the previous mass of suffering. That's how great the benefit is of breaking through to the Dhamma, monks. That's how great the benefit is of obtaining the Dhamma eye."

-- SN XIII.1

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What happens to one who has fully realized Nibbana?

[Aggivessana Vacchagotta:] "But, Master Gotama, the monk whose mind is thus released: Where does he reappear?"

[The Buddha:] "'Reappear,' Vaccha, doesn't apply."

"In that case, Master Gotama, he does not reappear."

"'Does not reappear,' Vaccha, doesn't apply."

"...both does & does not reappear."

"...doesn't apply."

"...neither does nor does not reappear."

"...doesn't apply."

"How is it, Master Gotama, when Master Gotama is asked if the monk reappears...does not reappear...both does & does not reappear...neither does nor does not reappear, he says, '...doesn't apply' in each case. At this point, Master Gotama, I am befuddled; at this point, confused. The modicum of clarity coming to me from your earlier conversation is now obscured."

"Of course you're befuddled, Vaccha. Of course you're confused. Deep, Vaccha, is this phenomenon, hard to see, hard to realize, tranquil, refined, beyond the scope of conjecture, subtle, to-be-experienced by the wise. For those with other views, other practices, other satisfactions, other aims, other teachers, it is difficult to know. That being the case, I will now put some questions to you. Answer as you see fit. How do you construe this, Vaccha: If a fire were burning in front of you, would you know that, 'This fire is burning in front of me'?"

"...yes..."

"And suppose someone were to ask you, Vaccha, 'This fire burning in front of you, dependent on what is it burning?' Thus asked, how would you reply?"

"...I would reply, 'This fire burning in front of me is burning dependent on grass & timber as its sustenance.'"

"If the fire burning in front of you were to go out, would you know that, 'This fire burning in front of me has gone out'?"

"...yes..."

"And suppose someone were to ask you, 'This fire that has gone out in front of you, in which direction from here has it gone? East? West? North? Or south?' Thus asked, how would you reply?"

"That doesn't apply, Master Gotama. Any fire burning dependent on a sustenance of grass and timber, being unnourished -- from having consumed that sustenance and not being offered any other -- is classified simply as 'out' (unbound)."

"Even so, Vaccha, any physical form by which one describing the Tathagata would describe him: That the Tathagata has abandoned, its root destroyed, like an uprooted palm tree, deprived of the conditions of existence, not destined for future arising. Freed from the classification of form, Vaccha, the Tathagata is deep, boundless, hard to fathom, like the sea. 'Reappears' doesn't apply. 'Does not reappear' doesn't apply. 'Both does & does not reappear' doesn't apply. 'Neither reappears nor does not reappear' doesn't apply.

"Any feeling...Any perception...Any mental fabrication...

"Any consciousness by which one describing the Tathagata would describe him: That the Tathagata has abandoned, its root destroyed, like an uprooted palm tree, deprived of the conditions of existence, not destined for future arising. Freed from the classification of consciousness, Vaccha, the Tathagata is deep, boundless, hard to fathom, like the sea."

-- MN 72

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The victory cry of the arahants

"Birth is depleted, the holy life fulfilled, the task done. There is nothing further for this world."

-- SN XXII.59

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The end of samsara

Some are born in the human womb,
evildoers in hell,
those on the good course go
to heaven,
while those without effluent:
totally unbound.